Learning lighting setups for portraits, glamour, boudoir, etc. can be expensive and frustrating. Especially if you set out to do it by the trail-and-error method. The cost of film and processing alone, while you are learning, can be staggering. And the results will very likely be disappointing. Many photographers expanding their abilities into this area do so by buying two or three reflectors, some photoflood bulbs, some light stands, and away they go. I did this, only to find that there is alot to learn over and above turning on the switches. With this as background, here are some proven tips that will save you time, money, and disappointment no matter where you are in your learning curve.


What Lights to Buy
Your first decision is what to buy. There are two basic types of lights: Tungsten and Strobes. In the tungsten category are photofloods and quartz. Strobes are high-powered flash units. Each type of lighting system has its own unique light housing. Make sure that whatever you buy accommodates light-controlling accessories like barndoors, snoots, and grid spots, because you’ll need them. And make sure the manufacturer (or someone they can recommend) makes these things for your equipment. Otherwise you’ll have to try and make them yourself, which is a pain in the neck. Barndoors are composed of either 2 or 4 swinging plates that attach to the front of your light. They help control the light from your unit by opening or closing the doors. They are most useful in lighting backgrounds and in some back lighting situations. A spot grid attaches over the light bell and, via a honeycombed design across its opening, restricts the diameter of the light beam reaching your subject. A snoot is a long tube on a flat base that is attached to either the lighting fixture itself or to the spot grid. It narrows to as little as a few inches the diameter of the beam of light hitting the subject. The spot grid and snoot are most often used as hair lights, or special-effects background lights. Light stands: get good sturdy ones that won’t tip over. For reasons that will soon become obvious, you may also need a boom rod to position your hair light, although I will offer a less expensive alternative.

Both lighting systems have their advantages as well as disadvantages. The advantages of either of the tungsten systems are lower front-end cost with the photoflood system the least expensive. The main disadvantage of photoflood or quartz lights is the heat they generate. In addition, photoflood bulbs have a very short life-span (less than 6 hours on average) coupled with a loss of color temperature and light intensity as they burn. While you won’t detect, these losses, your film will with the outcome being pictures that lean toward the color orange.

A quartz photoblub may last 25 to 50 hours. But the quartz bulb also generates heat and this must be a consideration because a happy subject is a comfortable one. Sweat is tacky. Both photoflood and quartz bulbs require the photographer to use either tungsten balanced films or use color correcting (CC) or color balancing filters, especially where slide films are concerned. These camera-mounted filters will cost you up to two stops of light loss! As an aside, if you choose photofloods and use the blue photoflood bulb you will need an 80-D filter to balance the light for daylight films. Strangely enough, that bit of information was hard to come by. Tungsten photo lights are rated at either 3200, 3400, or 4800 (blue bulbs) Kelvin.

A strobe bulb will flash from 50,000 to 100,000 times before a replacement flash tube is needed. The only heat comes from the modeling light. My four strobe heads use a regular 100-watt bulb, which is relatively heat-free. Other strobes use a small quartz bulb (useful life of up to 1000 hours) and the heat problem is probably not a factor worth fussing over. The brighter quartz bulbs may cause your subject to squint. Check this out before you buy. If you buy a strobe system, be sure the modeling lights are proportional to the power settings so “what you see is what you get”. This is one of the reasons I like my White Lightning heads. Another plus feature is that all the electronics and the power supply are contained in each head and each has a built-in slave unit. The modeling light goes off when the strobe is fired, thus assuring you that the strobe went off. When the modeling light comes back on about 0.5 to 1.5 seconds later, depending on power setting, you know the lights are ready to go again. No matter what system you buy, be sure to consider these features.

Strobes are balanced for daylight (5500 Kelvin) and typically don’t need any filters. Because a strobe fires at anywhere from 1/400th to 1/800th or less of a second (depending on power settings), you are able to use either tripod or hand-held camera techniques. With photoflood or quartz, you’ll probably be limited to tripod work unless you use a fast film and risk its loss of quality. Having experienced these challenges, you may have some feel for why this writer likes strobes. However, all that is in this guide is applicable to photoflood and quartz as well as strobe light setups. With everything considered (heat, room cooling needed, the expense of more frequent bulb replacement, subject comfort), strobes are probably more economical than either of the two tungsten types, in spite of the higher front-end cost. Setting light ratios is certainly easier if you get a system with adjustable light output features. A final word about strobes: You will read that such-and-such strobe produces X-number of Watt Seconds (WS) of power. This is a misleading number that signifies only the electrical power capacity of the strobe. The higher the WS number, the greater the amount of light, is what manufacturers imply. Without belaboring the point, don’t buy strobes based on their WS rating alone. However, one commonly accepted rule of buying strobes is to “buy all the power you can afford.” For normal studio work, using the somewhat confusing WS rating of the light, you can do a beautiful job with no more than a 150-200 WS setup. Anything more powerful than that-for a normal studio-becomes less than useful because you’ll have to back the power off or shoot at f16 or higher. That small an f-stop brings too much background into focus and nearly eliminates the usefulness of soft-focus filters, which depend on larger lens openings to be most effective. If you intend to light large areas or need a lot of light for special purposes, the higher WS lights may be useful.

How Many Lights Are Needed?
You can get by with one light! That’s right! One light will get you started by you’ll need a good reflector (a large piece of white cardboard will get you by) to provide some fill light. Before long, you’ll find that two lights are better than one and three lights are better than two are. With four lights you can do nearly anything. Let’s approach our subject with the agreement that you need at least three lights for a basic setup: a key light (the primary lighting for the subject), a fill light (softens and fills the shadows created by the key light), and a hair light (to light the hair) which helps “pop” the subject away from the background. I also recommend you get two 42-inch (or something near this size) silvered umbrellas for you key and fill lights for their softening effect. In time, you may wish to vary your lighting with super-silver, plain white, gold, or translucent (shoot-through) umbrellas. Each has its use but for now, let’s keep it simple. If your strobes have only two or three power settings, you will definitely need some neutral density filters for your hair light to bring its lighting ration in line with the umbrella-equipped key and fill lights. The more advanced (and expensive) strobes seldom if ever need neutral density filters due to power settings that cover a 5 stop range. These filters will also be needed for a photoflood or quartz system because they have no power settings. Gel filters can be purchased at any good camera store. Take care in hanging a gel filter in front of the tungsten lights because of the heat generated by these bulbs. Special clamp on holders are made for this purpose that keep enough space between the filter and the light source to prevent the filter melting or catching fire.

Light-To-Subject Distance
How close to the subject should the lights be? You can work as closely as 2 or 3 feet. The closer to the subject, the more harsh may be the lighting as shadows may be created by the lessening of the wraparound qualities of an umbrella. Be sure to keep the lights, umbrella, and umbrella rod out of the picture. Conversely, the further away the lights are from the subject (within reason), the more defused and softer the lighting effect. With umbrellas, this is less of a problem as opposed to lights with no diffusion at all. The latter produce very harsh lighting and high contrast. Remember also that the more distant the lights from the subject, the worse the lighting fall-off. (More about this shortly.)

Light Positions
After you acquire your lights and umbrellas, (1) How do you adjust the umbrellas on your lights? (2) Where do you put the lights in relation to the subject?

(1) Mount the umbrella in front of your light with the light positioned as close to the center of the umbrella as possible, turn on the modeling light (in the case of strobes), and note the shadow cast on your ceiling by the edge of the umbrella. Move your umbrella to the point where the shadow cast barely outlines the edge of the umbrella. This prevents “bounce” light from the ceiling or walls hitting your subject and skewing your photograph, especially if these surfaces are other than white. On the other hand, you may want the bounce light. Experimentation is the key if you do. The further the light is from the umbrella into which it is firing, the greater the spread of light being directed toward your subject. The closer the umbrella to the light source, the more focused the light sent toward your subject. Test your own set up to see which effect you like most. When using umbrellas, remember that this accessory serves to reflect or bounce light onto your subject. If you are working closer than 3 or 4 feet, your lighting unit itself (positioned near the middle of the umbrella) may block some of the light. Using your modeling light as a guide, you must move the umbrella up and down or side to side to MAKE SURE YOU DON’THAVE A “DARK SPOT” THAT COULD GIVE YOU AN INCORRECT EXPOSURE. Past 4 or 5 feet from your subject, this light-blocking is less critical but check for it anyway.

(2) The answer to this question can be as varied as a politician’s promise but the most used position for the key light would be roughly 45 degrees (half way) between the subject and the camera and something between 30 and 45 degrees above the eye level of the subject, at a distance of around 4 or 5 feet from the subject. We’ll discuss other positioning later on. (Try to place your subject 4 ft. or more from any background. This will help keep any shadows that may strike the backdrop out of your photograph.) The fill light should normally be as close to the camera’s axis (to the front of the subject) as possible and at about the same level as the subject’s eyes. This prevents the fill light from casting conflicting shadows that “fight” what you are trying to accomplish with the key light. It also gives you an attractive catch light in the subject’s eyes, that little “sparkle” that makes a pleasing photograph. The hair light should be above and behind the subject and can be on the same side as the key light or directly above and behind the head, or on the opposite side of the key light. There’s an ongoing debate on the best location for this light and only experimentation will tell you which position best suits your taste. Dark haired subjects will probably do better with the hair light opposite the key light or directly above and behind their head. This will keep the hair from disappearing against a dark background. Whatever you do, be sure the hair light doesn’t shine into the camera lens. This is where barndoors, a spot grid, or a snoot is mandatory, either of the latter two being preferred.

Types of Lighting
With Rembrandt Lighting, key light placement determines the modeling (shadowing) on your subject. As described above, placing this light at 45 degrees between camera and subject and about 45 degrees above subject eye level, will give you what is termed Rembrandt Lighting. This is perhaps the most popular type of portrait and glamour lighting. The key light will cast a shadow from the nose that falls down across the face, joining with the shadowed side of the face, leaving a “triangle” of light on the cheekbone. The nose shadow should not fall below the mouth line for best effect. You can make a face thinner by shooting the shadowed side (called short lighting) or more full by shooting the side lit by the key light (called broad lighting).

Butterfly Lighting allows you to get by with one light. Put the key light high (slightly above subject’s eye level) and directly in front of the subject. The nose shadow appears directly under the nose and should be about midway between the upper lip and the base of the nose for best appearance. This type of setup can help hide a large nose, a double chin, or thin face. You may wish to use a reflector somewhere under the face (out of the picture) to help fill in shadowed areas like eye sockets. The reflector may also be used to provide a catch light in the eyes to give them sparkle.

Loop Lighting is achieved if the key light is positioned high and slightly away from the camera position. The nose shadow drops in a small loop at an angle to the nose. It should extend no further than the end of the mouth. Next to Rembrandt Lighting, this seems to be the most useful in portraiture as it brings out contrast in the subject’s face. With the exception of Butterfly Lighting, note that the fill light should remain as close to the camera’s axis (in front of the subject) as possible. Causing conflicting shadows is a no-no. Two nose shadows, one on either side, looks funny and is very unprofessional.

Side Lighting is achieved by putting you key light directly to the side of and on the same plane as or slightly above the subject’s head. Half the face will be lit, half won’t. You can place the fill light opposite to the side (key) light, or directly in front of the subject, or anywhere in between. It depends only on the effect you wish to create. Adjust your fill light ratio to taste. The hair light, in this instance, might best be on the opposite side from the side light to balance the strong listing one side of the subject will be getting. You may not even want to use a hair light.

Back Lighting occurs when you put the key light behind the subject out of sight of the camera. Adjust your fill light as you wish. You can use 2:1, 1:1 or even a 4:1(2 stops difference) ratio. It all depends on the effect you want to create. This is another way to accomplish a “rim lighting” or “halo” effect. (More on lighting ratios is coming up.)

Monster Lighting, which has very limited use, is achieved by putting a key light below the head level and close to the subject and using no fill light. Dracula movies come to mind.

Flat Lighting is accomplished by putting both your designated key and fill lights at 45 degrees on either side of the subject and powering them so that each meters the same. No shadows will appear on the subject’s face. This is the technique used for copystand lighting and is very flat.

Metering Techniques
The most common lighting ratio for portraiture or glamour shots is 3:1. That means your key light is about 1-2/3rds f-stops stronger than your fill light. A 2:1 ratio, is also very common, means your key light is 1 stop stronger than the fill. (Most of the department store studios use this ratio or some minor variation thereof.) It’s best to use a flash meter if you want to be totally accurate in your ratios. A word of caution: in placing the meter for a reading, be sure to get it as close to the subject as possible. Nearly touching is best. A difference of 4 or 5 inches could make a difference in your exposure reading because of fall-off. (More on fall-off coming up.) Also, keep ambient light (windows, table lamps, etc.) to a minimum or eliminate it entirely. Too much ambient light will make it difficult to determine accurately the effects of your strobe’s modeling lights. Ambient light, depending on its intensity, can also affect the color of the overall light striking the subject and that will affect your photograph. Glass-framed pictures and mirrors can also reflect light onto your subject so cover them.

Here is how to meter light setups: First, turn off all but your key light, place your meter very close to the subject where you want a perfect exposure and pop the strobe meter. Turn off the key light and turn on the fill light and meter. Adjust its power (or distance from the subject) to achieve the desired light ratio to the key. Meter the hair light with your other lights on or off, but if they’re on, shield your meter from their effects. Remember that since your hair light has no umbrella on it, it will read “hot” and you may need some neutral density filters placed in front of the light to bring it into proper ratio. Adjust your light power or distances based on the key light reading and proceed. Important: After adjusting your rations (see below), take a meter reading with both the key and fill firing. This is reading to which you should set your camera. The reason? Because light compounds. If you’ve metered your key at f8 and your fill at f5.6, the combined flash of the lights may produce a reading of nearly f11. The same holds true if you are using 2 hair lights. Adjust them each, and then take a reading of their combined flash. Determine your ratios accordingly.

Lighting Ratios
What should be the balance (lighting ratio) between the key light, the fill light, and the hair light? If you meter f8 on your key light, then your fill light should meter between f4.5 & f5.6 for a 3:1 ratio. If you meter exactly one stop off, your lighting ratio will be 2:1. This produces acceptable images more along the lines of what you see on TV newscasts. Notice the anchorpersons are rather “flat lit” (something close to a 1:1 ratio), but the image is pleasant. (TV is good to watch for lighting techniques. You’ll soon recognize all the techniques and ratios mentioned in this study, and many that are not.)

Ratios Without a Flash Meter
If you don’t have a good flash meter, (I use a Minolta F), you can set your lighting ratios by using the f-stop method and a tape measure.

The f-stop method: Carefully measure the total distance from your key light bulb-to-the-umbrella-to-the-subject. If you position your key light 4 feet (f4) from your subject, the fill light (measured the same way) can be positioned at 5.6 feet (f5.6) to get a 2:1 ratio. Place your light midway between 5.6 ft. (f5.6) and 8 ft. (f8) for an approximate 3:1 ratio (the actual distance would be 6.7 ft.). Measure and set your hair light using the same technique. To get the proper f-stop, use the Guide Number method: divide the guide number of your strobe by the flash-to-subject distance. Based on an ISO 100 film, a guide number of 100 divided by a distance of 11 feet would give you an f-stop of about f11. Using an umbrella will drop your f-stop to between f8 and f8.5 because there is about a 17% reduction of light when an umbrella (depending on the type) is used. You will have to test to get accurate f-stops. Discussion of hair light ratios is coming up.)

Using a tape measure: If it’s not convenient to use an exact f-stop, measure your distance as above and multiply this distance by 1.414. Your answer, in feet, will be the distance at which you should set your fill light for a 2:1 ratio. Using a key light measurement of 4 ft. as an example, multiply by 1.414 and you’ll get 5.6 ft. for your fill light. Measure your hair light in the same way and adjust accordingly. Again, without a light meter, you’ll have to use the Guide Number method and run test shots to determine your best lens opening. To get a 3:1 ratio, multiply the first answer you got (5.6 ft.) by 1.19. Your fill light then should be 6.7 ft. from the subject. This will give you about 1.5 stops less than the key light. For me, it was easier to buy a good incident flash meter.

If you wonder where these multipliers come from, they are based on the square root of two because the illumination of a light drops off proportionately to the square of the distance. It’s called the Inverse Square Law. As you double the distance from light to subject, you get only 25% as much light on the subject. Translated, you must open your lens two stops if you double the distance of the light from the subject. Going down one f-stop (f8 to f5.6) doubles the amount of light reaching the film. Going up one f-stop (f8 to f11) cuts the amount of light by one half.

The ratio between the hair light and everything else is the subject of taste. The most pleasing results seem to come from a ratio that is 1:1. That is, the hair light meters the same as the combined reading of the key light and the fill light. But, you’ll get very pleasant results in many cases with a 1:2 ratio. The latter means the hair light meters 1 stop over you key light reading. (Dark haired persons can easily use more light. However, you will rarely miss with a 1:1 ratio on brunettes, and a 1:2 ratio can be very appealing. Blonds should be rationed at 1:1. The thing you’re really fighting is “burnout” or “hot spots.” Too much light will leave you with a “blob” of light on the person’s head that is very distracting. It wipes out all detail in the hair, especially with blonds. If any uncontrolled (spill) light from the hair light hits the side of your subject’s face, you’ll have still another “hot spot” and an unsatisfactory photograph. Control this problem with barndoors, a grid spot, or a snoot. Both a 1:1 and a 1:2 ratio-carefully handled is very effective if you use two hair lights, placed above and equal distance apart at the rear of-and to either side of the subject. Try six feet total separation (3 feet to either side of the subjects head) if your subject is from 4 to 5 feet in front of the lights. Using a dual setup, adjust your hair lights so they individually meter the same. Then meter them flashed jointly and use this reading in calculating your ratios. Be sure that no (or very little) spill hits the front or sides of the subject. If you use only a key light (Butterfly set up) in front of the subject near your camera axis, you’ll get a “rim Lighting” effect that is quite appealing. The duel hair light setup is also usable with Rembrandt and Loop lighting. Experimentation with 2:1 and 1:1 ratios, as well as the 1:2 ratios, will give you different results. Never be afraid to try something different. Be sure to guard against the hair lights shinning into your lens by using barndoors or grid spots. Snoots may not provide the effect you want in this setup, as their light beam is too narrow. Finally, if you get that fourth light and want to do some background lighting, follow these guidelines: set your light on the background to equal the f-stop measured at your key light if you want the background to reproduce accurately. If you want it darker set the background light to be one or more stops less than the key. If you want it brighter, set the background light to be one or more stops over. Barndoors, grid spots, or snoots can produce interesting patterns on your background depending on light placement, etc.

Camera Position and The Rule of Thirds
Here are two areas that are rarely discussed. At what height should the camera be positioned in relation to the subject? What is the “Rule of Thirds”, and is it useful in portraiture? Here are some guidelines. Camera Position: If you’re shooting head and shoulder or full-frame head shots, place the camera at about the same height as the subject’s eyes. Try to put the subject’s eyes on an imaginary line that is one third down from the top of your viewfinder’s frame. You’ll like the results. If you are shooting full length, half-length, or three-quarter length poses, put the camera at chest height to your subject. In the case of full length poses, remember to take into account light fall-off or you’ll have an underexposed lower body. While on the subject of standing full-body shots, you might set your key light high and in front of your subject and position the fill light right under it or as close as possible. Adjust both lights so they meter the same then meter again with both lights firing to get a roper exposure setting. Meter at the subject’s nose, mid-section, and knees to be sure your lighting is properly balanced. This is a situation where you could use a 72-inch umbrella or a shoot-through screen measuring about 42" x 78". You could also use a large soft light. But we only have three lights, remember? So try experimenting with what you have. Remember to readjust your hair light. You may have to add a stronger neutral density filter because your standing subject will now be closer to the hair light. Nearly all of the above rules could apply to subjects being shot in the prone position, if their body is in a parallel plane to the camera’s film plane. Simply adjust your lights to a horizontal rather than a vertical plane. (Don’t be afraid to experiment for different effects.) Use the same metering technique mentioned above (nose, mid-section, knees). Remember to control your hair light with barndoors, snoot, or a grid spot, depending on the effect you want. If you want just the hair lighted, use a snoot. A grid spot will cover head and shoulders while barndoors can be adjusted to cover the length of the body, with some possible fall-off at either extreme. By using these camera alignment guides, you’ll avoid the distortion caused by your lens. If you want to see distortion epitomized, try shooting a full-length shot from eye level or just above the eye level of the subject. They look like upside-down pyramids, especially if you are using a lens of less than 70mm. You might use this distortion to your advantage if you’re trying to slim the hips of a heavier subject. Be careful. It’s a fine line between “that’s nice” and “yuck”.

Now to the Rule of Thirds. This long-used artists’ rule is accomplished thusly: divide your viewing screen (or get one already etched for this purpose) into thirds, side-to-side, top to bottom. Anything placed where the lines intersect is what people seem to look at first. That’s the reason for placing your subject’s eyes on the one-third line from the top of your screen. It creates a most pleasing portrait. While not cast in concrete, this rule should be followed whenever possible, including scenic shots.

Backgrounds
Rolls of seamless paper are commonly used and they come in all sizes and designs. You can, however, make your own. I went to a cloth remnant store and bought a huge (6 yards, 48”wide) piece of denim together so that we ended up with two pieces 8 feet wide and about 15 feet long. We also picked up other pieces of cloth to vary the background color and provide clients with different colored and textured material to sit or lay on. Fake fur, in various colors, can make an intriguing glamour or boudoir photograph. By using small (1 &Mac178;) electrical alligator clamps (the type with a small screw in the end opposite the clamp jaws, available at any hardware store), to grip the cloth and small 1.5” screw-in-type hooks, set in my studio ceiling (about 2 feet apart, right on the studs), one can design a backdrop to fit just about any need, depending on how the cloth is hung. Note: after you remove the small screw from the alligator clamp, you may have to drill it out a little to fit over the hook. The nice thing about the cloth is that it doesn’t tear or fray. It’s durable, and has a long life span. If it gets dirty, vacuum it. Or, in the worst case, get it cleaned. The windows and glass-paneled doors in my studio are also covered with black cloth. The backdrop is put in place after the windows are covered, providing a double window covering that stops all sunlight from entering the room. When you are through with your shoot, just take all the cloth down, fold neatly, and store away. The room is now restored to its original purpose. Using this same hook technique, I designed a ceiling mounted rod to hold my hair light(s). These hooks were placed on the same studs 6 inches in front of the backdrop hooks to keep the hair light away from my cloth background. Using a 1.5-inch diameter, 8 foot long piece of doweling, I put three small eye hooks in the rod; one in the center, the other two equal distance from the center hook, all carefully measured to match the stud mounted ceiling hooks. If you place a line of hooks around your room correctly, you can move this hair light rod just about anywhere in your studio. And you can move your light anywhere along the length of the rod. Let your imagination guide you. Hook your hair light to a gaffer grip like that made by Smith Victor. You can get them in many camera stores with either 3/8’ or 5/8” mounting rods. Clamp the gaffer grip to the doweling and you are in business. This makes an adequate substitute for a boom rod at a materials cost of under $10.00. The cost of a gaffer grip ranges from $15.00 to $20.00. These hooks, by the way, can be used to hang anything from Mylar strips to Venetian blinds. Just be sure they are screwed into the ceiling studs a good half inch. The overall hook length should be at least 1.5”. A word of caution: do not put any hooks into your ceiling until you have fully discussed the matter with your mate.

In Conclusion
In this article we’ve covered only the basics, not the whole field of lighting. Left for your exploration are soft lights, reflectors, spotlights, translucent screens, colored gels, product lighting, and on and on. If you want a single book that will give you considerable insight on nearly all lighting situations, visit your camera store and ask for David Brooks’ Photographic Lighting. Gary Bernstein’s Beauty & Glamour Photography is another superb work that contains great photographs and diagrams. Still another useful book is from the Kodak Library of Creative Photography called The Art Of Portraits And The Nude. The photographs and diagrams are excellent. To learn the technical properties of light and how strobes work, get Paul C. Buff’s booklet, Lighting For Still Photography. This is perhaps the finest technical explanation I’ve seen. His company makes the White Lightning heads. These books and others that are available, coupled with the data you’ve just studied, will help you produce beautiful photographs, whether you’re doing it for fun or profit. And that, after all, is what photography is all about.





Information on Recommended Reading
from Mr. Johnson:

How To Control and Use Photographic Lighting
By: David Brooks
1st Edition Publisher: H.P. Books; (1980)
2nd Edition Publisher: Berkley Pub Group; (1989)

Pro Techniques of Beauty and Glamour Photography
By: Gary Bernstein
H.P. Photobooks
Publisher: Berkley Pub Group; (1985)

Lighting For Still Photography
By: Paul C. Buff, Inc.
Order directly from Paul C. Buff, Inc.
2725 Bransford Avenue Nashville, TN 37204

The Kodak Library of Creative Photography:
The Art of Portraits and The Nude
By Time Life
Publisher: Warner Books Inc; (1984)